{"id":394,"date":"2025-08-27T22:44:00","date_gmt":"2025-08-27T17:14:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/?p=394"},"modified":"2026-01-26T15:07:22","modified_gmt":"2026-01-26T09:37:22","slug":"drug-delivery","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/drug-delivery\/","title":{"rendered":"Drug Delivery: Principles, Importance, and Advances in Therapeutic Administration"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Drug delivery is the science and practice of administering a pharmaceutical compound<strong><sup>1<\/sup><\/strong>. Its goal is to get the right drug to the right place in the body at the right time and in the right dose to produce a therapeutic effect. It connects pharmacology, materials science, and clinical medicine, and has fundamentally transformed how many diseases are treated.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This comprehensive interdisciplinary field covers both the route of administration, such as oral or injectable, and the design of systems like tablets, patches, or nanoparticles that <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/technology\/nanotechnology\/Nanotechnology-research\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">control how<\/a> the drug behaves in the body. A drug delivery system is any formulation or device that presents a drug to the body in a controlled way. Common examples include coated tablets, prefilled syringes, inhalers, transdermal patches, depot injections, liposomes, and other nano\u2011 or micro\u2011particles<strong><sup>2-8<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Why drug delivery is important<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Good drug delivery improves how well a treatment works and how safe it is. It can enhance drug stability, increase the fraction of drug that actually reaches the target, and smooth out blood levels over time to avoid peaks and troughs<strong><sup>9-11<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">It also aims to improve patient experience<strong><sup> 6<\/sup><\/strong>. Optimized drug delivery can reduce how often a patient needs a dose and minimize side effects on healthy tissues, making the treatment more convenient and thus improving adherence and overall outcomes<strong><sup>12<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Basic concepts in drug delivery<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Several core concepts guide the design of any drug delivery approach. Key ones include:\u200b<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics<\/strong>: A drug delivery system should shape absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion efficiently, to ensure that the drug levels stay in the therapeutic window while achieving the desired effect at the target site<strong><sup>13<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Specificity and targeting<\/strong>: Where possible, the system should preferentially deliver the drug to diseased tissues, such as tumors or inflamed organs, and spare normal tissues<strong><sup>14<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Controlled release<\/strong>: The formulation can be designed for immediate, delayed, or sustained release depending on the condition and the drug\u2019s properties<strong><sup>15<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Biocompatibility and safety<\/strong>: Materials used in delivery systems must be non\u2011toxic, non\u2011immunogenic, and, when appropriate, biodegradable<strong><sup> 16-17<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Major routes of drug administration<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A route of administration describes where and how the drug enters the body. Each route has its characteristic advantages and limitations.\u200b<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Oral route<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The oral route uses tablets, capsules, syrups, or solutions swallowed by the patient<strong><sup>18<\/sup><\/strong>. It is the most common route because it is convenient, portable, and suitable for self\u2011administration.\u200b<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">However, drugs given orally must survive the acidic stomach environment, digestive enzymes, and first\u2011pass metabolism in the liver, which can reduce how much drug reaches the bloodstream. To address these challenges, many modified release oral formulations are used, such as enteric-coated tablets for acid-sensitive drugs or sustained-release capsules for chronic pain medicines<strong><sup>18<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Parenteral routes<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Parenteral routes bypass the gastrointestinal tract and deliver drugs through injections or infusions. Main subtypes include:\u200b<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Intravenous (IV):<\/strong> The drug is given directly into a vein, making onset very rapid and bioavailability essentially complete, which is crucial in emergencies such as sepsis or acute myocardial infarction<strong><sup>19<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Intramuscular (IM) and subcutaneous (SC):<\/strong> The drug is injected into muscle or subcutaneous tissue, from where it is absorbed more slowly, as seen with many vaccines and insulin preparations<strong><sup>19<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Intraosseous and other specialized injections<\/strong>: In critical situations where venous access is difficult, such as in some neonates or cardiac arrest, intraosseous access can deliver drugs through the bone marrow space<strong><sup>20<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Parenteral delivery is beneficial for precise dosing and rapid action, but it is hard to self-administer and often requires trained personnel and sterile technique.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Inhalation route<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Inhalation delivers drug directly to the respiratory tract, mainly through inhalers or nebulizers<strong><sup>21<\/sup><\/strong>. It is widely used in asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease because the drug can act locally in the lungs while limiting systemic exposure.\u200b<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Particle size and proper inhaler technique are critical factors, as they directly determine how deeply drug particles penetrate into the airways and the effective drug dose that deposits rather than being lost to swallowing<strong><sup>22<\/sup><\/strong>. Consequently, modern inhalers, including dry powder and soft mist devices, are specifically engineered to improve this pulmonary deposition efficiency and enhance ease of use<strong><sup>23-24<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Transdermal and topical routes<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Transdermal delivery uses the skin as a portal for systemic therapy, often via adhesive patches that release a drug continuously over many hours or days; classic examples include nicotine patches for smoking cessation and fentanyl patches for chronic pain<strong><sup>25<\/sup><\/strong>. Topical delivery, in contrast, focuses solely on local action, as seen with creams for eczema or gels for acne<strong><sup>25<\/sup><\/strong>. For both methods, formulations must carefully balance skin penetration with safety, frequently incorporating enhancers, liposomes, or other carriers to improve passage through the skin barrier when systemic action or deep local penetration is required.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Mucosal and other special routes<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Other important routes include:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Sublingual and buccal<\/strong>: Tablets or films placed under the tongue or in the cheek provide rapid absorption into the bloodstream and bypass first\u2011pass metabolism, as with sublingual nitroglycerin for angina<strong><sup>26<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Nasal<\/strong>: Sprays or drops can deliver drugs both for local effects, such as decongestants, and for systemic therapy with quick onset. Examples include some rescue migraine treatments<strong><sup>27<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Ophthalmic and otic<\/strong>: Eye and ear drops or inserts deliver medications directly to ocular or auditory structures, minimizing systemic exposure<strong><sup>28-29<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Rectal and vaginal<\/strong>: Suppositories, foams, or gels can be useful when oral administration is not possible or when high local concentrations are needed<strong><sup>30-32<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Conventional drug delivery systems<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Traditional dosage forms remain the backbone of modern pharmacotherapy. Common systems include:\u200b<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Immediate\u2011release oral tablets and capsules that disintegrate quickly to release drug for rapid absorption<strong><sup>33<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Solutions and suspensions for oral or parenteral use, where the drug is already dissolved or finely dispersed.<strong><sup> 34<\/sup><\/strong>\u200b<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Topical preparations such as ointments, creams, lotions, and gels designed primarily for local action on skin or mucosa<strong><sup>35<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">These systems are relatively simple and cost\u2011effective but may lead to fluctuating blood levels and limited control over where the drug is distributed.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Controlled and sustained release systems<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Controlled release systems aim to provide a more predictable, sustained exposure to a drug over an extended period. They are particularly valuable for chronic diseases where stable drug levels improve response and convenience.\u200b<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Examples include:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Extended\u2011release tablets that use polymer matrices or coatings to slow drug release over 12\u201324 hours<strong><sup>36<\/sup><\/strong>. This mechanism is seen with many once-daily antihypertensives or antidepressants.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Depot injections, such as long\u2011acting antipsychotic formulations or contraceptive injections<strong><sup>37<\/sup><\/strong>. They release drug gradually from an oil base or biodegradable polymer after a single injection.\u200b<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Implants placed under the skin that provide months of continuous drug delivery<strong><sup>38<\/sup><\/strong>. They are used in some hormonal therapies and in treatments for opioid dependence.\u200b<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">These systems can reduce dosing frequency and help patients to adhere to the drug regimen, but they can be harder to adjust or reverse once administered.\u200b<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Targeted and nanoparticle\u2011based delivery<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Targeted drug delivery seeks to concentrate the drug in diseased tissues while sparing healthy organs<strong><sup>39<\/sup><\/strong>. This strategy is especially important in oncology, where conventional chemotherapy can damage many rapidly dividing normal cells.\u200b<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/nanomedicine\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Nanoparticle systems<\/a> play a major role here. Common examples include:\u200b<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Liposomes<\/strong>: These are spherical vesicles with a lipid bilayer that can encapsulate both water\u2011soluble and fat\u2011soluble drugs and protect them from degradation<strong><sup>40<\/sup><\/strong>. Pegylated liposomal doxorubicin formulations, such as those used in some cancers and Kaposi sarcoma, are designed to exploit leaky tumor vessels so that the drug accumulates more in tumor tissue than in normal tissue<strong><sup>41<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Polymeric micelles<\/strong>: These are nanoscale assemblies of amphiphilic polymers that solubilize poorly water\u2011soluble drugs and can be functionalized with targeting ligands for tumors or inflamed tissues<strong><sup>42<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Solid lipid nanoparticles and related lipid\u2011based systems<\/strong>: These particles are made of solid or structured lipids that improve stability and bioavailability and are used in fields ranging from oncology to cosmetic formulations<strong><sup>43<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The ability of these platforms to tune size, surface charge, and surface chemistry for optimized control over circulation time, cellular uptake, and immune recognition is a major advantage. However, they also raise new questions about long\u2011term safety, manufacturing complexity, and regulatory oversight.\u200b<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Implants and device\u2011based delivery<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Devices and implants provide physical platforms for precise, often long-term drug administration. Beyond simple subcutaneous rods for hormonal therapy, examples of these advanced systems include:\u200b<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Programmable infusion pumps that deliver insulin or chemotherapy at variable rates based on clinical need<strong><sup>44-45<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Drug\u2011eluting stents in cardiology, where a coronary stent slowly releases an antiproliferative drug to reduce restenosis after angioplasty<strong><sup>46<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Intraocular implants that provide sustained release of drugs to the back of the eye in chronic conditions such as some forms of uveitis<strong><sup>47<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">These systems achieve very high local concentrations with reduced systemic exposure but require procedural placement and careful follow\u2011up.\u200b<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Challenges in drug delivery<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Despite major progress, the field of drug delivery faces many significant challenges related to biological hurdles, safety, and practical implementation:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Biological barriers in the body, such as the gastrointestinal tract, the skin, various mucus layers, and especially the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/blood-brain-barrier\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">blood\u2013brain barrier<\/a>, severely limit the types of drugs and formulations that can effectively reach their intended site of action<strong><sup>48<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Inter-patient variability in factors like genetics, comorbidities, and the use of concurrent medications significantly complicates the design of effective &#8220;one size fits all&#8221; delivery systems<strong><sup>49<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>New materials used in advanced delivery systems must be rigorously demonstrated to be non-toxic and non-immunogenic before clinical use<strong><sup>50<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Manufacturing processes for complex delivery systems must be scalable and reproducible to enable mass production while maintaining consistent quality<strong><sup>51-52<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The costs associated with developing and producing advanced therapies must be kept manageable so that patients and health systems globally can afford and access these treatments.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Future directions<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Future drug delivery is moving toward more personalized, precise, and responsive systems<strong><sup>53<\/sup><\/strong>. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/precision-medicine\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Personalized<\/a> approaches aim to tailor not only the drug but also the delivery platform to an individual\u2019s genetic profile, disease characteristics, and lifestyle. This can potentially improve efficacy and limit toxicity.\u200b<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Emerging technologies include stimuli\u2011responsive systems that release drug in response to pH, temperature, enzymes, or external triggers such as light or ultrasound<strong><sup>54<\/sup><\/strong>. Advanced nanoparticles and hybrid materials are being engineered to cross biological barriers, deliver genes or RNA, and integrate with diagnostic tools<strong><sup>55-56<\/sup><\/strong>.\u200b<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Taken together, drug delivery is no longer a passive step in therapy but an active field that shapes how medicines work, how safe they are, and how patients experience their treatment. As new drugs become more complex and more personalized, the science of delivering them effectively will remain central to modern healthcare.\u200b<\/p>\n\n\n\n<!--nextpage-->\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">FAQs<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">1. What are prodrugs, and how do they relate to drug delivery?<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A prodrug is an inactive compound that becomes an active drug only after it is metabolized or chemically transformed <em>inside<\/em> the body. This is a chemical delivery strategy used to improve the drug&#8217;s solubility, targeting, or absorption, or to reduce its side effects during delivery.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2. How do drug delivery systems address drug bioavailability?<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Bioavailability is the fraction of an administered drug that reaches the systemic circulation unchanged. Delivery systems like liposomes, micelles, or specific oral formulations protect the drug from degradation (e.g., in the stomach) and increase its absorption, thereby significantly boosting the amount of active drug available to the body.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3. What is the role of pharmacogenomics in the future of drug delivery?<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Pharmacogenomics studies how an individual&#8217;s genes affect their response to drugs. In the future, this data will allow for truly personalized medicine. This will guide the design of unique delivery systems that are tailored precisely to a patient&#8217;s genetic profile to maximize efficacy and minimize toxicity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4. What are stimuli-responsive systems?<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">These delivery systems are designed to release their drug payload only when triggered by specific cues, such as changes in pH (common in tumors or inflamed areas), temperature, light, or ultrasound. This ensures the drug is released exactly at the diseased site, enhancing targeting and reducing side effects.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Reference<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">1. Vargason, A. M., Anselmo, A. C., &amp; Mitragotri, S. (2021). The evolution of commercial drug delivery technologies.&nbsp;<em>Nature biomedical engineering<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>5<\/em>(9), 951-967.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">2. Kim, M. S., Yeom, D. W., Kim, S. R., <em>et al<\/em>. (2016). Development of a chitosan based double layer-coated tablet as a platform for colon-specific drug delivery.&nbsp;<em>Drug design, development and therapy<\/em>, <em>11, <\/em>45-57.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">3. Sassalos, T. M., &amp; Paulus, Y. M. (2019). Prefilled syringes for intravitreal drug delivery.&nbsp;<em>Clinical Ophthalmology (Auckland, NZ)<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>13<\/em>, 701.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">4. Rogliani, P., Calzetta, L., Coppola, A., <em>et al<\/em>. (2017). Optimizing drug delivery in COPD: the role of inhaler devices.&nbsp;<em>Respiratory medicine<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>124<\/em>, 6-14.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">5. Bird, D., &amp; Ravindra, N. M. (2020). Transdermal drug delivery and patches\u2014An overview.&nbsp;<em>Medical Devices &amp; Sensors<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>3<\/em>(6), e10069.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">6. Vargason, A. M., Anselmo, A. C., &amp; Mitragotri, S. The evolution of commercial drug delivery technologies. <em>Nature biomedical engineering<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>5<\/em>(9), 951-967.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">7. Alavi, M., Karimi, N., &amp; Safaei, M. (2017). Application of various types of liposomes in drug delivery systems.&nbsp;<em>Advanced pharmaceutical bulletin<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>7<\/em>(1), 3.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">8. El-Sherbiny, I. M., El-Baz, N. M., &amp; Yacoub, M. H. (2015). Inhaled nano-and microparticles for drug delivery.&nbsp;<em>Global Cardiology Science &amp; Practice<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>2015<\/em>(2).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">9. Shi, Y., Lammers, T., Storm, G., <em>et al<\/em>. (2016). Physico-chemical strategies to enhance stability and drug retention of polymeric micelles for tumor-targeted drug delivery.&nbsp;<em>Macromolecular bioscience<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>17<\/em>(1), 10-1002.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">10. Tewabe, A., Abate, A., Tamrie, M., <em>et al<\/em>. (2021). Targeted drug delivery\u2014from magic bullet to nanomedicine: principles, challenges, and future perspectives.&nbsp;<em>Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare<\/em>, <em>14,<\/em> 1711-1724.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">11. Urquhart, J. (2001). Controlled drug delivery: therapeutic and pharmacological aspects.&nbsp;<em>Journal of internal medicine<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>249<\/em>(S741), 75-94.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">12. Senapati, S., Mahanta, A. K., Kumar, S., <em>et al<\/em>. (2018). Controlled drug delivery vehicles for cancer treatment and their performance.&nbsp;<em>Signal transduction and targeted therapy<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>3<\/em>(1), 7.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">13. Glassman, P. M., &amp; Muzykantov, V. R. (2019). Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of drug delivery systems.&nbsp;<em>The Journal of pharmacology and experimental therapeutics<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>370<\/em>(3), 570-580.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">14. Zhao, Z., Ukidve, A., Kim, J., <em>et al<\/em>. (2020). Targeting strategies for tissue-specific drug delivery.&nbsp;<em>Cell<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>181<\/em>(1), 151-167.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">15. Kamaly, N., Yameen, B., Wu, J., <em>et al<\/em>. (2016). Degradable controlled-release polymers and polymeric nanoparticles: mechanisms of controlling drug release.&nbsp;<em>Chemical reviews<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>116<\/em>(4), 2602-2663.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">16. Tiwari, G., Tiwari, R., Sriwastawa, B., <em>et al<\/em>. (2012). Drug delivery systems: An updated review.&nbsp;<em>International journal of pharmaceutical investigation<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>2<\/em>(1), 2.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">17. Hakim, L. K., Yazdanian, M., Alam, M., <em>et al<\/em>. (2021). Biocompatible and biomaterials application in drug delivery system in oral cavity.&nbsp;<em>Evidence<\/em><em>\u2010Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>2021<\/em>(1), 9011226.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">18. Alqahtani, M. S., Kazi, M., Alsenaidy, M. A., <em>et al<\/em>. (2021). Advances in oral drug delivery.&nbsp;<em>Frontiers in pharmacology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>12<\/em>, 618411.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">19. Jin, J. F., Zhu, L. L., Chen, M., <em>et al<\/em>. (2015). The optimal choice of medication administration route regarding intravenous, intramuscular, and subcutaneous injection.&nbsp;<em>Patient preference and adherence<\/em>, <em>9,<\/em> 923-942.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">20. Kang, J. H., &amp; Ko, Y. T. (2023). Intraosseous administration into the skull: potential blood\u2013brain barrier bypassing route for brain drug delivery.&nbsp;<em>Bioengineering &amp; Translational Medicine<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>8<\/em>(2), e10424.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">21. Ibrahim, M., Verma, R., &amp; Garcia-Contreras, L. (2015). Inhalation drug delivery devices: technology update.&nbsp;<em>Medical Devices: Evidence and Research<\/em>, <em>8,<\/em> 131-139.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">22. Dudhat, K. R., &amp; Patel, H. V. (2022). Influence of particle size and particle deposition of inhaled medication in lung disease: a comrehensive review.&nbsp;<em>International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>14<\/em>(1), 141-157.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">23. Chrystyn, H., &amp; Lavorini, F. (2020). The dry powder inhaler features of the Easyhaler that benefit the management of patients.&nbsp;<em>Expert Review of Respiratory Medicine<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>14<\/em>(4), 345-351.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">24. Anderson, P. (2006). Use of Respimat\u00ae soft Mist&#x2122; inhaler in COPD patients.&nbsp;<em>International journal of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>1<\/em>(3), 251-259.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">25. Alany, R. (2017). Topical and transdermal formulation and drug delivery.&nbsp;<em>Pharmaceutical development and technology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>22<\/em>(4), 457-457.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">26. Boden, W. E., Padala, S. K., Cabral, K. P., <em>et al<\/em>. (2015). Role of short-acting nitroglycerin in the management of ischemic heart disease.&nbsp;<em>Drug Design, Development <\/em>and<em> Therapy<\/em>, <em>9, <\/em>4793-4805.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">27. Cooper, W., Ray, S., Aurora, S. K., <em>et al<\/em>. (2022). Delivery of Dihydroergotamine Mesylate to the Upper Nasal Space for the Acute Treatment of Migraine: Technology in Action.&nbsp;<em>Journal of Aerosol Medicine and Pulmonary Drug Delivery<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>35<\/em>(6), 321.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">28. Shen, J., Gao, H., Chen, L., <em>et al<\/em>. (2023). Eyedrop-based macromolecular ophthalmic drug delivery for ocular fundus disease treatment.&nbsp;<em>Science Advances<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>9<\/em>(4), eabq3104.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">29. Zhang, Z., Li, X., Zhang, W., <em>et al<\/em>. (2021). Drug delivery across barriers to the middle and inner ear.&nbsp;<em>Advanced functional materials<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>31<\/em>(44), 2008701.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">30. Awad, A., Hollis, E., Goyanes, A., <em>et al<\/em>. (2023). 3D printed multi-drug-loaded suppositories for acute severe ulcerative colitis.&nbsp;<em>International Journal of Pharmaceutics: X<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>5<\/em>, 100165.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">31. Hoc, D., &amp; Haznar-Garbacz, D. (2021). Foams as unique drug delivery systems.&nbsp;<em>European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>167<\/em>, 73-82.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">32. Gao, Y., Yuan, A., Chuchuen, O., <em>et al<\/em>. (2015). Vaginal deployment and tenofovir delivery by microbicide gels.&nbsp;<em>Drug delivery and translational research<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>5<\/em>(3), 279-294.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">33. Parkash, V., Maan, S., Yadav, S. K., <em>et al<\/em>. (2011). Fast disintegrating tablets: Opportunity in drug delivery system.&nbsp;<em>Journal of Advanced Pharmaceutical Technology &amp; Research<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>2<\/em>(4), 223.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">34. Jacob, S., Nair, A. B., &amp; Shah, J. (2020). Emerging role of nanosuspensions in drug delivery systems.&nbsp;<em>Biomaterials research<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>24<\/em>(1), 3.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">35. Garg, T., Rath, G., &amp; Goyal, A. K. (2015). Comprehensive review on additives of topical dosage forms for drug delivery.&nbsp;<em>Drug delivery<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>22<\/em>(8), 969-987.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">36. Wojty\u0142ko, M., Lamprou, D. A., Froelich, A., <em>et al<\/em>. (2024). 3D-printed solid oral dosage forms for mental and neurological disorders: Recent advances and future perspectives.&nbsp;<em>Expert Opinion on Drug Delivery<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>21<\/em>(11), 1523-1541.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">37. Brissos, S., &amp; Balanz\u00e1-Mart\u00ednez, V. (2024). Long-acting antipsychotic treatments: focus on women with schizophrenia.&nbsp;<em>Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>14<\/em>, 20451253241263715.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">38. Itzoe, M., &amp; Guarnieri, M. (2017). New developments in managing opioid addiction: impact of a subdermal buprenorphine implant.&nbsp;<em>Drug design, development and therapy<\/em>, <em>11<\/em>, 1429-1437.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">39. Manzari, M. T., Shamay, Y., Kiguchi, H., <em>et al<\/em>. (2021). Targeted drug delivery strategies for precision medicines.&nbsp;<em>Nature Reviews Materials<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>6<\/em>(4), 351-370.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">40. Daraee, H., Etemadi, A., Kouhi, M., <em>et al<\/em>. (2016). 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Targeted delivery of hyaluronic acid-coated solid lipid nanoparticles for rheumatoid arthritis therapy.&nbsp;<em>Drug delivery<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>25<\/em>(1), 716-722.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">44. Berget, C., Messer, L. H., &amp; Forlenza, G. P. (2019). A clinical overview of insulin pump therapy for the management of diabetes: past, present, and future of intensive therapy.&nbsp;<em>Diabetes spectrum: a publication of the American Diabetes Association<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>32<\/em>(3), 194.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">45. Sabbagh Dit Hawasli, R., Barton, S., &amp; Nabhani-Gebara, S. (2021). Ambulatory chemotherapy: Past, present, and future.&nbsp;<em>Journal of Oncology Pharmacy Practice<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>27<\/em>(4), 962-973.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">46. Lee, D. H., &amp; de la Torre Hernandez, J. M. (2018). The newest generation of drug-eluting stents and beyond.&nbsp;<em>European Cardiology Review<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>13<\/em>(1), 54.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">47. Cao, Y., Samy, K. E., Bernards, D. A., <em>et al<\/em>. (2019). Recent advances in intraocular sustained-release drug delivery devices.&nbsp;<em>Drug discovery today<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>24<\/em>(8), 1694-1700.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">48. Yang, R., Wei, T., Goldberg, H., <em>et al<\/em>. (2017). Getting drugs across biological barriers.&nbsp;<em>Advanced Materials<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>29<\/em>(37), 1606596.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">49. Ilan, Y. (2020). Overcoming compensatory mechanisms toward chronic drug administration to ensure long-term, sustainable beneficial effects.&nbsp;<em>Molecular Therapy Methods &amp; Clinical Development<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>18<\/em>, 335-344.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">50. Spadari, C. D. C., de Bastiani, F. W. M. D. S., Lopes, L. B., <em>et al<\/em>. (2019). Alginate nanoparticles as non-toxic delivery system for miltefosine in the treatment of candidiasis and cryptococcosis.&nbsp;<em>International Journal of Nanomedicine<\/em>,<em>14<\/em>, 5187-5199.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">51. Shahriari, M. H., Salmani, H., Akrami, M., <em>et al<\/em>. (2024). Development of a facile, versatile and scalable fabrication approach of solid, coated, and dissolving microneedle devices for transdermal drug delivery applications.&nbsp;<em>Giant<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>18<\/em>, 100284.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">52. Leong, H. S., Butler, K. S., Brinker, C. J., <em>et al<\/em>. (2019). On the issue of transparency and reproducibility in nanomedicine.&nbsp;<em>Nature nanotechnology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>14<\/em>(7), 629-635.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">53. Geraili, A., Xing, M., &amp; Mequanint, K. (2021). Design and fabrication of drug\u2010delivery systems toward adjustable release profiles for personalized treatment.&nbsp;<em>View<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>2<\/em>(5), 20200126.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">54. Cai, W., Wang, J., Chu, C., <em>et al<\/em>. (2019). Metal\u2013organic framework\u2010based stimuli\u2010responsive systems for drug delivery.&nbsp;<em>Advanced Science<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>6<\/em>(1), 1801526.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">55. Mitchell, M. J., Billingsley, M. M., Haley, R. M., <em>et al<\/em>. (2021). Engineering precision nanoparticles for drug delivery.&nbsp;<em>Nature reviews drug discovery<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>20<\/em>(2), 101-124.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">56. Ribeiro, L. N., Alc\u00e2ntara, A. C., Rodrigues da Silva, G. H., <em>et al<\/em>. (2017). Advances in Hybrid Polymer\u2010Based Materials for Sustained Drug Release.&nbsp;<em>International Journal of Polymer Science<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>2017<\/em>(1), 1231464.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Drug delivery is the science and practice of administering a pharmaceutical compound to achieve a therapeutic effect, aiming to get the right drug to the right place at the right time. 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