{"id":321,"date":"2025-10-29T17:28:00","date_gmt":"2025-10-29T11:58:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/?p=321"},"modified":"2026-01-26T04:07:23","modified_gmt":"2026-01-25T22:37:23","slug":"immunophenotyping","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/immunophenotyping\/","title":{"rendered":"Immunophenotyping: Decoding Cells by Their Surface Markers"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p>Immunophenotyping is a sophisticated <a href=\"https:\/\/my.clevelandclinic.org\/health\/diagnostics\/immunophenotyping\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">laboratory technique<\/a> that plays a crucial role in modern biology and medicine<strong><sup>1<\/sup><\/strong>. It allows scientists and clinicians to rapidly distinguish between various cell types within a heterogeneous sample. This makes it possible to track their differentiation and activation states and identify abnormal cell populations, providing a powerful window into the immune system and beyond.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The conceptual foundation of immunophenotyping relies on the remarkable specificity of antigen-antibody interactions. Antibodies, naturally produced by the immune system, can be engineered in the laboratory to bind to unique protein markers which are expressed on the surface of the cells or within their cytoplasm. By conjugating these antibodies with fluorochromes\u2014molecules that emit light at specific wavelengths when excited by a laser\u2014researchers can visualize and quantify cells expressing particular markers<strong><sup>2<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">The tools of the trade<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Flow cytometry<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>It is the dominant and most versatile platform used in immunophenotyping<strong><sup>3<\/sup><\/strong>. In a flow cytometer, cells in a liquid suspension are passed, one by one, through a laser beam, when the fluorochrome-conjugated antibodies bound to its surface or intracellular markers emit light. Detectors capture both the scattered light and the emitted fluorescence signals. While the scattered light provides information on cell size and granularity, each distinct fluorochrome corresponds to a specific marker, allowing for the simultaneous detection of multiple markers on individual cells.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>This multiplexing capability is one of flow cytometry&#8217;s greatest strengths, as it enables the visualization of distinct cell clusters based on their fluorescence profiles, allowing comprehensive characterization of complex cell mixtures<strong><sup>3<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Beyond traditional flow cytometry, other techniques also contribute to immunophenotyping.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Mass cytometry (CyTOF)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>This advanced technique overcomes the spectral overlap limitations of traditional fluorochromes by using antibodies conjugated to heavy metal isotopes<strong><sup>4<\/sup><\/strong>. Cells are then analyzed in a mass spectrometer, detecting these metal tags based on their mass-to-charge ratio. This makes it possible to simultaneously detect 40 or more markers on single cells, which provides an unprecedented depth of phenotypic information<strong><sup>5<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Imaging flow cytometry<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>This technique combines the high-throughput capabilities of flow cytometry with the detailed morphological information obtained from microscopy. The high-resolution images of individual cells are captured as they pass through the fluid stream<strong><sup>6<\/sup><\/strong>. This enables the spatial localization of markers and assessment of subtle cellular features.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Immunohistochemistry (IHC) and Immunofluorescence (IF)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>These techniques are used to detect markers within tissue sections or on fixed cells. Antibodies are applied to tissue slides, and their binding is visualized using IHC or IF<strong><sup>7<\/sup><\/strong>. They don\u2019t provide single-cell quantitative data in suspension like flow cytometry, but still offer crucial spatial context, by showing where specific cell types are located within a tissue microenvironment.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Multiplexed Imaging Technologies<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Emerging platforms, such as CyCIF, CODEX, t-CyCIF, and MIBI-TOF, extend the capabilities of traditional IHC\/IF by allowing the simultaneous detection of dozens or even hundreds of markers within a single tissue section<strong><sup>8-11<\/sup><\/strong>. The repeated staining and imaging with different antibody panels or use of specific barcode-based systems, enables researchers to build highly detailed spatial maps of cell populations and their interactions within complex tissues.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Applications in research and clinic<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Immunophenotyping has become an indispensable tool across biological research and clinical diagnostics.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Immunophenotyping in hematology and oncology<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>This is arguably the most critical clinical application of immunophenotyping.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Different types of blood cancers are characterized by specific abnormal immunophenotypes. For example, B-cell lymphomas express specific B-cell markers (e.g., CD19, CD20), while T-cell leukemias express T-cell markers (e.g., CD3, CD4)<strong><sup>12, 13<\/sup><\/strong>. This analytical approach helps in precise classification, which is crucial for determining prognosis and guiding therapy.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>After treatment for certain hematological malignancies, a small number of residual <a href=\"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/cancer-carcinogenesis\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">cancer cells<\/a> can remain, which is the main reason for relapse. Immunophenotyping offers high sensitivity for detection of these rare abnormal cells at very low frequencies, often one in 10,000 to one in 1,000,000 normal cells<strong><sup>14, 15<\/sup><\/strong>. MRD detection is a powerful prognostic factor and helps to intensify or de-escalate therapeutic interventions.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Plasma cell disorders like multiple myeloma are characterized by clonal plasma cells<strong><sup>16<\/sup><\/strong>. <strong>In these cases, clinicians use immunophenotyping<\/strong> to identify and quantify these abnormal plasma cells in bone marrow.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In solid tumors, immunophenotyping can be used to detect and characterize circulating tumor cells in the peripheral blood<strong><sup>17<\/sup><\/strong>. This offers a non-invasive way to monitor disease progression, predict metastasis, and assess treatment response.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Immunophenotyping in immunodeficiency and autoimmune diseases<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>The technique is vital for diagnosing and monitoring disorders of the immune system.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Many primary immunodeficiencies are caused by defects in the development or function of specific immune cell populations. Immunophenotyping helps to count lymphocyte subsets, such as T cells, B cells, and NK cells, and identify specific maturation blocks<strong><sup>18<\/sup><\/strong>. It also helps to identify the absence of particular cell types, such as B cells in X-linked agammaglobulinemia or T cells in severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)<strong><sup>19, 20<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Immunophenotyping is crucial for enumerating CD4+ T cells, as a declining count signals worsening immune suppression. This process helps to determine the clinical phase of HIV infection, monitor disease progression, and assess the effectiveness of antiretroviral therapy<strong><sup>21<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Immunophenotyping can reveal characteristic imbalances or activation states of immune cells in <a href=\"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/autoimmune-disorders\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">autoimmune conditions<\/a>, such as abnormal B cell subsets or activated T cells observed in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)<strong><sup>22<\/sup><\/strong>. It can also be used to monitor the effects of immunosuppressive therapies.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Immunophenotyping in transplantation<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>In organ transplantation, immunophenotyping has proven utilities.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Immunophenotyping helps to assess compatibility between donor and recipient by detecting antibodies against donor human leukocyte antigens, thus minimizing the risk of rejection<strong><sup>23<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Immunophenotyping is used to monitor the immune status of transplant recipients, detect signs of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) in hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, or identify early signs of organ rejection<strong><sup>24, 25<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Immunophenotyping in basic and translational research<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Immunophenotyping represents a fundamental technique within the field of immunological research, offering several key capabilities:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Cellular discovery:<\/strong> It helps to identify novel immune cell populations and understand their differentiation pathways<strong><sup>26<\/sup><\/strong>. It also helps to define their functional roles, such as those of regulatory T cells and various myeloid-derived suppressor cells<strong><sup>26<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Dynamic monitoring:<\/strong> Researchers use these assays to monitor changes in immune cell populations during infection, vaccination, or tumor development<strong><sup>27<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Drug development:<\/strong> The process makes it possible to assess the effects of new drugs on immune cell populations, identify potential therapeutic targets on specific cell types, and evaluate drug-induced immune modulation<strong><sup>28<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Vaccine evaluation:<\/strong> By enabling the assessment of immune responses to vaccine candidates, it reveals the expansion of specific memory T or B cell populations<strong><sup>29<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">The Process of Immunophenotyping<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>The immunophenotyping process involves several critical steps to ensure accurate and reliable results<strong><sup>30<\/sup><\/strong>:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol start=\"1\" class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Sample collection and preparation:<\/strong> The quality of the sample is of utmost importance. Common samples include whole blood, bone marrow aspirates, cerebrospinal fluid, and tissue biopsies. It is crucial to use suitable anticoagulants, process samples promptly, and prevent cellular degradation<strong><sup>1<\/sup><\/strong>. For flow cytometry, cells are typically isolated and placed in a single-cell suspension.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Antibody staining:<\/strong> This is the most crucial step of the process. Specific monoclonal antibodies, each conjugated to a different fluorochrome, are added to the cell suspension. These antibodies bind to their respective target markers on or within the cells. Multiparameter analysis involves using a &#8220;cocktail&#8221; of multiple antibodies at once to identify and count several cell types simultaneously.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Washing:<\/strong> Unbound antibodies are removed during the washing process to reduce background interference and enhance signal specificity.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Data acquisition: <\/strong>The stained cells are then analyzed using an instrument like a flow cytometer, where laser excitation and fluorescence detection occur.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Data analysis:<\/strong> Raw data, commonly displayed as dot plots, are processed using specialized software. Gating strategies are used to sequentially identify and select specific cell populations based on their light scatter and fluorescence profiles. This method enables quantification of various cell types and evaluation of marker expression levels.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Challenges and future directions<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Although immunophenotyping is highly effective, it encounters specific challenges.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Maintaining high standards of sample quality and consistency is essential.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Standardizing antibody panels and analytical gating methodologies across laboratories is a must for consistency and reliability in research outcomes<strong><sup>31<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The spectral overlap of fluorochromes in traditional flow cytometry limits the number of markers that can be simultaneously detected<strong><sup>32<\/sup><\/strong>. However, mass cytometry and imaging flow cytometry are addressing this issue.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Analyzing complex multiparameter data demands expert knowledge and bioinformatics tools<strong><sup>30<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>The future of immunophenotyping is exciting and dynamic.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Continued development of technologies like mass cytometry and advanced multiplexed imaging will help in the simultaneous detection of an even greater number of markers<strong><sup>9<\/sup><\/strong>. This will provide unmatched <a href=\"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/single-cell-technology\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">single-cell<\/a> and spatial detail.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Integrating immunophenotyping with single-cell transcriptomic or proteomic analyses enables the correlation of cell surface phenotypes with gene expression profiles<strong><sup>33<\/sup><\/strong>. This provides a comprehensive understanding of cellular identity and function.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/artificial-intelligence-applications-in-healthcare\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Artificial intelligence<\/a> and machine learning will increasingly automate gating, cell identification, and the discovery of new cell subsets, which will reduce manual work and boost reproducibility<strong><sup>34<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Immunophenotyping is expanding beyond blood cancers to routine profiling of solid tumors, monitoring personalized <a href=\"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/immunotherapy\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">immunotherapy<\/a>, and early disease detection<strong><sup>35<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Point-of-care immunophenotyping involves the development of smaller, more automated devices for rapid and accessible immunophenotyping in diverse clinical settings<strong><sup>36<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Immunophenotyping has fundamentally reshaped our understanding of cellular diversity and its role in health and disease. With ongoing technological advancements, immunophenotyping is increasingly being utilized in <a href=\"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/precision-medicine\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">precision medicine<\/a>, supporting drug development and patient care<strong><sup>30<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<!--nextpage-->\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">FAQs<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">1. Is immunophenotyping only used for human cells?<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>No, immunophenotyping is widely used in veterinary medicine for animal health diagnostics. It is also used in basic research for studying cell biology in various non-human species, such as mice, zebrafish, and non-human primates.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2. What are some of the potential risks of immunophenotyping to the patient?<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>The procedure itself is minimally invasive with very low risk to the patient. Sample collection, such as a blood draw or a bone marrow biopsy, carries minor risks like bruising or temporary discomfort. The analysis of the sample in the lab has no direct risk to the patient.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3. How long does it take to get results from immunophenotyping?<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>The turnaround time can vary based on the sample type and lab. A simple blood sample for flow cytometry can be processed within hours, thus providing rapid results for urgent clinical decisions. More complex analyses of tissue biopsies or bone marrow may take several days.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Reference<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>1. Herold, N. C., &amp; Mitra, P. (2023). Immunophenotyping. In&nbsp;<em>StatPearls [Internet]<\/em>. StatPearls Publishing.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>2. Biancotto, A., &amp; McCoy, J. P. (2013). Studying the human immunome: the complexity of comprehensive leukocyte immunophenotyping.&nbsp;<em>High-Dimensional Single Cell Analysis: Mass Cytometry, Multi-parametric Flow Cytometry and Bioinformatic Techniques<\/em>, <em>377<\/em>, 23-60.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>3. Fung, E., Esposito, L., Todd, J. A., <em>et al<\/em>. (2010). Multiplexed immunophenotyping of human antigen-presenting cells in whole blood by polychromatic flow cytometry.&nbsp;<em>Nature protocols<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>5<\/em>(2), 357-370.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>4. Stern, L., McGuire, H., Avdic, S., <em>et al<\/em>. (2018). Mass cytometry for the assessment of immune reconstitution after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.&nbsp;<em>Frontiers in immunology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>9<\/em>, 1672.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>5. Niewold, P., Ijsselsteijn, M. E., Verreck, F. A., <em>et al<\/em>. (2022). An imaging mass cytometry immunophenotyping panel for non-human primate tissues.&nbsp;<em>Frontiers in Immunology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>13<\/em>, 915157.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>6. Erber, W. N., Hui, H., Stanley, J., <em>et al<\/em>. (2020). Detection of Del (17p) in hematological malignancies by imaging flow cytometry.&nbsp;<em>Blood<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>136<\/em>, 9-10.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>7. Wang, X., &amp; Lebrec, H. (2017). Immunophenotyping: application to safety assessment.&nbsp;<em>Toxicologic pathology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>45<\/em>(7), 1004-1011.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>8. Lin, J. R., Fallahi\u2010Sichani, M., Chen, J. Y., <em>et al<\/em>. (2016). Cyclic immunofluorescence (CycIF), a highly multiplexed method for single\u2010cell imaging.&nbsp;<em>Current protocols in chemical biology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>8<\/em>(4), 251-264.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>9. Phillips, D., Sch\u00fcrch, C. M., Khodadoust, M. S., <em>et al<\/em>. (2021). Highly multiplexed phenotyping of immunoregulatory proteins in the tumor microenvironment by CODEX tissue imaging.&nbsp;<em>Frontiers in Immunology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>12<\/em>, 687673.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>10. Lin, J. R., Izar, B., Wang, S., <em>et al<\/em>. (2018). Highly multiplexed immunofluorescence imaging of human tissues and tumors using t-CyCIF and conventional optical microscopes.&nbsp;<em>elife<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>7<\/em>, e31657.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>11. Keren, L., Bosse, M., Thompson, S., <em>et al<\/em>. (2019). MIBI-TOF: A multiplexed imaging platform relates cellular phenotypes and tissue structure.&nbsp;<em>Science advances<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>5<\/em>(10), eaax5851.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>12. Johnson, N. A., Boyle, M., Bashashati, A., <em>et al<\/em>. (2009). Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma: reduced CD20 expression is associated with an inferior survival.&nbsp;<em>Blood, The Journal of the American Society of Hematology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>113<\/em>(16), 3773-3780.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>13. Tamaki, T., Karube, K., Sakihama, S., <em>et al<\/em>. (2023). A comprehensive study of the immunophenotype and its clinicopathologic significance in adult T-cell leukemia\/lymphoma.&nbsp;<em>Modern Pathology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>36<\/em>(8), 100169.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>14. San Miguel, J. F., Mart\u0131nez, A., Macedo, A., <em>et al<\/em>. (1997). Immunophenotyping investigation of minimal residual disease is a useful approach for predicting relapse in acute myeloid leukemia patients.&nbsp;<em>Blood, The Journal of the American Society of Hematology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>90<\/em>(6), 2465-2470.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>15. Chatterjee, T., Mallhi, R. S., &amp; Venkatesan, S. (2016). Minimal residual disease detection using flow cytometry: Applications in acute leukemia.&nbsp;<em>medical journal armed forces india<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>72<\/em>(2), 152-156.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>16. Paiva, B., Almeida, J., P\u00e9rez\u2010Andr\u00e9s, M., <em>et al<\/em>. (2010). Utility of flow cytometry immunophenotyping in multiple myeloma and other clonal plasma cell\u2010related disorders.&nbsp;<em>Cytometry Part B: Clinical Cytometry<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>78<\/em>(4), 239-252.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>17. Campos, M., Prior, C., Warleta, F., <em>et al<\/em>. (2008). Phenotypic and genetic characterization of circulating tumor cells by combining immunomagnetic selection and FICTION techniques.&nbsp;<em>Journal of Histochemistry &amp; Cytochemistry<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>56<\/em>(7), 667-675.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>18. Choi, J., Lee, S. J., Lee, Y. A., <em>et al<\/em>. (2014). Reference Values for Peripheral Blood Lymphocyte Subsets in a Healthy Korean Population.&nbsp;<em>Immune Network<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>14<\/em>(6), 289.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>19. Van Zelm, M. C., Pumar, M., Shuttleworth, P., <em>et al<\/em>. (2019). Functional antibody responses following allogeneic stem cell transplantation for TP53 mutant pre-B-ALL in a patient with X-linked agammaglobulinemia.&nbsp;<em>Frontiers in immunology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>10<\/em>, 895.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>20. Van Dongen, J. J., Van der Burg, M., Kalina, T., <em>et al<\/em>. (2019). EuroFlow-based flowcytometric diagnostic screening and classification of primary immunodeficiencies of the lymphoid system.&nbsp;<em>Frontiers in immunology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>10<\/em>, 1271.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>21. Barnett, D., Walker, B., Landay, A., <em>et al<\/em>. (2008). CD4 immunophenotyping in HIV infection.&nbsp;<em>Nature Reviews Microbiology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>6<\/em>(Suppl 11), S7-S15.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>22. Aw, Y. T. V., Whiley, P. J., Lorenzo, A. M., <em>et al<\/em>. (2023). Immunophenotyping identifies distinct cellular signatures for systemic lupus erythematosus and lupus nephritis.&nbsp;<em>Rheumatology &amp; Autoimmunity<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>3<\/em>(01), 15-25.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>23. Stastny, P., Lavingia, B., Fixler, D. E., <em>et al<\/em>. (2007). Antibodies against donor human leukocyte antigens and the outcome of cardiac allografts in adults and children.&nbsp;<em>Transplantation<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>84<\/em>(6), 738-745.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>24. Wittenbecher, F., Lesch, S., Kolling, S., <em>et al<\/em>. (2022). Paired donor and recipient immunophenotyping in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: A cellular network approach.&nbsp;<em>Frontiers in Immunology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>13<\/em>, 874499.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>25. Greenland, J. R., Jewell, N. P., Gottschall, M., <em>et al<\/em>. (2014). Bronchoalveolar lavage cell immunophenotyping facilitates diagnosis of lung allograft rejection.&nbsp;<em>American Journal of Transplantation<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>14<\/em>(4), 831-840.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>26. Pitoiset, F., Cassard, L., El Soufi, K., <em>et al<\/em>. (2018). Deep phenotyping of immune cell populations by optimized and standardized flow cytometry analyses.&nbsp;<em>Cytometry part A<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>93<\/em>(8), 793-802.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>27. Newton, H. S., &amp; Dobrovolskaia, M. A. (2022). Immunophenotyping: analytical approaches and role in preclinical development of nanomedicines.&nbsp;<em>Advanced drug delivery reviews<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>185<\/em>, 114281.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>28. Gallorini, M., Marinacci, B., Pellegrini, B., <em>et al<\/em>. (2024). Immunophenotyping of hemocytes from infected Galleria mellonella larvae as an innovative tool for immune profiling, infection studies and drug screening.&nbsp;<em>Scientific Reports<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>14<\/em>(1), 759.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>29. Diks, A. M., Overduin, L. A., Van Leenen, L. D., <em>et al<\/em>. (2021). B-cell immunophenotyping to predict vaccination outcome in the immunocompromised-A systematic review.&nbsp;<em>Frontiers in immunology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>12<\/em>, 690328.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>30. Preglej, T., Brinkmann, M., Steiner, G., <em>et al<\/em>. (2023). Advanced immunophenotyping: A powerful tool for immune profiling, drug screening, and a personalized treatment approach.&nbsp;<em>Frontiers in Immunology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>14<\/em>, 1096096.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>31. Finak, G., Langweiler, M., Jaimes, M., <em>et al<\/em>. (2016). Standardizing flow cytometry immunophenotyping analysis from the human immunophenotyping consortium.&nbsp;<em>Scientific reports<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>6<\/em>(1), 20686.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>32. Sun, J., Kroeger, J. L., &amp; Markowitz, J. (2020). Introduction to multiparametric flow cytometry and analysis of high-dimensional data. In&nbsp;<em>Translational Bioinformatics for Therapeutic Development<\/em>, <em>2194<\/em>, (pp. 239-253). New York, NY: Springer US.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>33. Franken, A., Van Mol, P., Vanmassenhove, S., <em>et al<\/em>. (2022). Single-cell transcriptomics identifies pathogenic T-helper 17.1 cells and pro-inflammatory monocytes in immune checkpoint inhibitor-related pneumonitis.&nbsp;<em>Journal for immunotherapy of cancer<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>10<\/em>(9), e005323.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>34. Hecht, M., Frey, B., Gaipl, U. S., <em>et al<\/em>. (2024). Machine Learning-assisted immunophenotyping of peripheral blood identifies innate immune cells as best predictor of response to induction chemo-immunotherapy in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma\u2013knowledge obtained from the CheckRad-CD8 trial.&nbsp;<em>Neoplasia<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>49<\/em>, 100953.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>35. Garman, B., Jiang, C., Daouti, S., <em>et al<\/em>. (2023). Comprehensive immunophenotyping of solid tumor-infiltrating immune cells reveals the expression characteristics of LAG-3 and its ligands.&nbsp;<em>Frontiers in Immunology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>14<\/em>, 1151748.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>36. Walsh III, D. I., Murthy, S. K., &amp; Russom, A. (2016). Ultra-high-throughput sample preparation system for lymphocyte immunophenotyping point-of-care diagnostics.&nbsp;<em>Journal of Laboratory Automation<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>21<\/em>(5), 706-712.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Immunophenotyping is a sophisticated laboratory technique that allows scientists and clinicians to rapidly distinguish between various cell types within a heterogeneous sample. This makes it possible to track their differentiation and activation states and identify abnormal cell populations. Immunophenotyping relies on the remarkable specificity of antigen-antibody interactions.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":3,"featured_media":322,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[16,8,15],"tags":[],"coauthors":[10,9],"class_list":["post-321","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-biotechnology","category-healthcare","category-immunology"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v27.6 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Immunophenotyping: Decoding Cells by Their Surface Markers<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Immunophenotyping is a sophisticated laboratory technique to rapidly distinguish between various cell types within a heterogeneous sample.\" \/>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, 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