{"id":302,"date":"2025-09-10T22:37:00","date_gmt":"2025-09-10T17:07:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/?p=302"},"modified":"2026-01-26T04:40:54","modified_gmt":"2026-01-25T23:10:54","slug":"huntingtons-disease","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/huntingtons-disease\/","title":{"rendered":"Huntington\u2019s Disease: A Genetic Tragedy of the Brain"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Huntington\u2019s disease (HD) is a debilitating inherited <a href=\"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/neurodegeneration\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">neurodegenerative disorder<\/a> resulting from an autosomal dominant genetic mutation that progressively destroys nerve cells in the brain<strong><sup>1<\/sup><\/strong>. It impairs movement, cognition, and mental health, which ultimately leads to severe disability and death. First described by George Huntington in <a href=\"https:\/\/hdsa.org\/what-is-hd\/history-and-genetics-of-huntingtons-disease\/history-of-huntingtons-disease\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">1872<\/a>, HD is rare but occurs worldwide, with one mutated gene copy guaranteeing development of this disease. There is <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ninds.nih.gov\/health-information\/disorders\/huntingtons-disease\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener nofollow\">no cure at present<\/a>; current therapies merely alleviate symptoms.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Genetics and inheritance of Huntington\u2019s disease<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The hallmark of HD is the expansion of a CAG trinucleotide repeat in exon 1 of the huntingtin (HTT) gene on the shorter arm of chromosome 4<strong><sup>1<\/sup><\/strong>. Normally, people have 10\u201326 repeats; expansions beyond 36 increase disease risk<strong><sup>1<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This mutation causes \u201cgenetic anticipation,\u201d which is an acceleration of disease onset and symptom severity linked to an increase in the CAG repeat length<strong><sup>2<\/sup><\/strong>. This acceleration is often most pronounced when the mutation is passed from father to child, leading to increasingly severe symptoms in subsequent generations. HD is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner: each affected parent has a 50% chance of passing it to each child. Genetic studies confirm that the appearance of a truly <em>de novo<\/em> mutations is very rare<strong><sup>1<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Pathophysiology of Huntington\u2019s disease<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The expanded CAG sequence produces an abnormally long polyglutamine tract in the Huntingtin protein, giving rise to a mutant huntingtin (mHTT)<strong><sup>1<\/sup><\/strong>. This mutant protein gains new toxic properties, which is the primary cause of the disease, rather than simply losing its normal function.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/protein-misfolding\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Misfolded<\/a> mHTT proteins aggregate inside neurons and form nuclear and cytoplasmic inclusions that disrupt cellular processes. Neuronal loss is seen to be most significant in the striatum\u2014the caudate and putamen, which are key for motor control, cognition, and emotion<strong><sup>3<\/sup><\/strong>. As disease progresses, degeneration spreads to the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and cerebellum.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">At the molecular level, mHTT toxicity involves several converging mechanisms that together drive progressive neuronal damage and brain dysfunction<strong><sup>4<\/sup><\/strong>:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Impaired gene regulation that disrupts essential proteins<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Mitochondrial dysfunction that reduces energy and increases oxidative stress<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Excitotoxicity from glutamate overstimulation harming neurons<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Failures in protein folding and clearance (proteostasis)<strong><sup>5<\/sup><\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Disrupted axonal transport and synaptic signaling<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Chronic neuroinflammation activated by glial cells<strong><sup>6<\/sup><\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Clinical manifestations of Huntington\u2019s disease<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">HD\u2019s hallmark symptom is&nbsp;chorea\u2014involuntary, irregular jerky movements that worsen over time<strong><sup>7<\/sup><\/strong>. Patients also develop dystonia (sustained muscle contractions), slowed or absent movements (bradykinesia\/akinesia), speech slurring, swallowing difficulties, gait instability, and abnormal eye movements<strong><sup>1, 8, 9<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Cognitive decline typically involves impaired planning, executive function, memory retrieval, and slowed processing speed. Patients often lack insight into their deficits which complicates care.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Psychiatric symptoms arise early or before motor signs, including depression (with heightened suicide risk), irritability, anxiety, apathy, obsessive-compulsive behaviors, psychosis, impulsivity, and aggression<strong><sup>10<\/sup><\/strong>. These profoundly affect their quality of life.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Stages of Huntington\u2019s disease progression<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Huntington\u2019s typically unfolds over 15\u201320 years after onset:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Premanifest<\/strong>: Gene carriers show no obvious symptoms, but sensitive testing may reveal subtle cognitive or psychiatric changes.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Early stage<\/strong>: Mild motor symptoms like chorea or mood changes appear but do not impair daily functioning. Diagnosis is usually made in this stage.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Middle stage<\/strong>: Motor symptoms worsen, which seriously impacts daily tasks and independence. Caregiver assistance becomes necessary as cognitive and psychiatric symptoms become more severe.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Late stage<\/strong>: At this stage, severe motor impairment is present, including rigidity, dystonia, loss of communication abilities, and marked cognitive decline. Patients become fully dependent for support and are at extensive risk for complications such as aspiration and pneumonia.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Diagnosis of Huntington\u2019s disease<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Diagnosis involves clinical evaluation of characteristic motor signs alongside cognitive and psychiatric assessments.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>A family history is crucial because of its strong hereditary influence<strong><sup>8<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Definitive confirmation comes from&nbsp;genetic testing, which quantifes CAG repeats via blood analysis<strong><sup>11, 12<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Pre-symptomatic testing is also available but it requires intensive counseling due to psychological and ethical complexities<strong><sup>13<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Brain imaging such as MRI reveals striatal atrophy characteristics of HD as it advances<strong><sup>14<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Functional neuroimaging (PET, fMRI) can detect early metabolic changes before structural loss appears, which aids early detection<strong><sup>15, 16<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Current treatments of Huntington\u2019s disease<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">There is currently no cure for HD, nor has any therapy been proven to halt its progression. Treatment strategies therefore focus on managing symptoms and maximizing quality of life.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>For motor symptoms, VMAT2 inhibitors such as tetrabenazine and deutetrabenazine reduce dopamine release and suppress chorea<strong><sup>17<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Antipsychotic medications, for instance, haloperidol or olanzapine provide additional relief but may cause significant side effects<strong><sup>18<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Rigidity and dystonia can be alleviated with muscle relaxants<strong><sup>19<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Psychiatric symptoms are treated with antidepressants, or mood stabilizers<strong><sup>20, 21<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Non-pharmacological interventions play a critical role, with physical and occupational therapy used to support mobility and independence<strong><sup>22<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>For swallowing difficulties, treatment includes speech therapy, dietary modifications, and sometimes feeding tubes in advanced disease<strong><sup>22, 23<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Challenges in research and treatment<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">HD poses some unique obstacles, notably:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Individuals with pathogenic CAG expansions most inevitably develop this disease, which raises ethical and psychological dilemmas about predictive testing and life planning<strong><sup>4<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Diagnosis often occurs late, after significant irreversible brain damage has already occurred. This often limits opportunities for protective intervention strategies<strong><sup>24<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Expression&nbsp;of the huntingtin gene throughout the body complicates targeted therapies without affecting normal protein function<strong><sup>25<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Lack of reliable early progression biomarkers&nbsp;hinders tracking and trial design, though neurofilament light chain is showing promise<strong><sup>26<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The long disease course, variability, and ethical challenges make clinical trials more difficult and slow down drug development<strong><sup>27<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Targeting mHTT selectively&nbsp;without impacting normal HTT function remains a daunting research barrier<strong><sup>28<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Emerging research and future directions<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Research into Huntington\u2019s disease is accelerating with a focus on therapies that directly address the root cause. Gene-silencing approaches such as antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) and small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) aim to lower mutant protein production<strong><sup>29, 30<\/sup><\/strong>. Tominersen, one such ASO, demonstrated potential yet highlighted the challenges of managing safety and efficacy<strong><sup>29<\/sup><\/strong>. Even more experimental are gene-editing strategies using tools like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/crispr-cas-systems\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">CRISPR<\/a>, which could one day correct the expanded repeat itself<strong><sup>31<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Other parallel approaches are aimed at neuroprotection: improving mitochondrial function, reducing excitotoxic glutamate activity, modulating inflammation, and enhancing cellular clearance systems like autophagy<strong><sup>32<\/sup><\/strong>. Small molecules designed to prevent mHTT aggregation are being developed. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/regenerative-medicine\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Regenerative medicine<\/a>, including stem cell therapy, still remains in experimental stages but holds long-term potential to replace or protect vulnerable neurons<strong><sup>33<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Equally important is progress in biomarker development. Blood-based markers such as neurofilament light chain may soon provide reliable metrics for neurodegeneration and treatment response<strong><sup>34<\/sup><\/strong>. Advances in <a href=\"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/artificial-intelligence-applications-in-healthcare\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">artificial intelligence<\/a> and machine learning promise to accelerate trial design, predict disease course, and analyze complex datasets for personalized intervention strategies<strong><sup>35<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Socio-economic and psychosocial impact<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The reach of Huntington\u2019s disease extends beyond the patient to reshape families, relationships, and communities. The psychosocial burden begins even before onset, as individuals struggle with whether to undergo testing and confront their potential future<strong><sup>36<\/sup><\/strong>. Parents often carry the guilt of passing the gene to children, with the present stigma, symptoms and psychiatric changes deepening isolation. Depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation are common both among patients and family members.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">With worsening symptoms, patients require full-time assistance that leads to burnout and financial hardship for caregivers<strong><sup>37<\/sup><\/strong>. Personality changes and cognitive decline can also deeply affect bonds within families, which leads to profound emotional stress long before the physical end stage. Economically as well, the long-term care costs for HD are substantial, and require direct medical needs, specialized support, and indirect losses of productivity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Conclusion<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Huntington\u2019s disease is a genetic disorder that seriously affects motor, cognitive, and emotional abilities of a person. Current therapies only address symptoms, however, its clear genetic cause enables novel approaches aimed at disease modification. Gene therapies, neuroprotective strategies, and advancements in biomarker detection provide tangible hope for future treatments that could slow or prevent progression. At the same time, compassionate multidisciplinary care remains of equal significance. The combined effort of scientific innovation and empathetic support offers hope for patients and families going through this devastating illness.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<!--nextpage-->\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">FAQs<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">1. Does lifestyle affect when symptoms start?<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">While the number of CAG repeats is the primary factor, research suggests lifestyle factors such as exercise, mental stimulation, and diet may modestly influence how quickly symptoms appear or progress, though they cannot prevent the disease.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2. Is Huntington\u2019s disease contagious?<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">No. Huntington\u2019s disease is not an infection\u2014it is a purely genetic condition. It cannot be \u201ccaught\u201d or transmitted through contact, blood, or sexual activity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3.<strong> <\/strong>Can someone with HD have healthy children?<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Yes. Options such as preimplantation genetic testing with in-vitro fertilization (IVF) allow families to have children who do not inherit the mutation. Some also choose prenatal testing during pregnancy, though this comes with ethical and emotional complexities.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Reference<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">1. Bates, G. P., Dorsey, R., Gusella, J. F., <em>et al<\/em>. (2015). Huntington disease.&nbsp;<em>Nature reviews Disease primers<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>1<\/em>(1), 1-21.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">2. Ridley, R. M., Frith, C. D., Crow, T. J., <em>et al<\/em>. (1988). Anticipation in Huntington&#8217;s disease is inherited through the male line but may originate in the female.&nbsp;<em>Journal of medical genetics<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>25<\/em>(9), 589-595.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">3. Csehi, R., Molnar, V., Fedor, M., <em>et al<\/em>. (2023). The improvement of motor symptoms in Huntington\u2019s disease during cariprazine treatment.&nbsp;<em>Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>18<\/em>(1), 375.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">4. Moumn\u00e9, L., Betuing, S., &amp; Caboche, J. (2013). Multiple aspects of gene dysregulation in Huntington\u2019s disease.&nbsp;<em>Frontiers in neurology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>4<\/em>, 127.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">5. Harding, R. J., &amp; Tong, Y. F. (2018). Proteostasis in Huntington&#8217;s disease: disease mechanisms and therapeutic opportunities.&nbsp;<em>Acta Pharmacologica Sinica<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>39<\/em>(5), 754.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">6. Crotti, A., &amp; Glass, C. K. (2015). The choreography of neuroinflammation in Huntington&#8217;s disease.&nbsp;<em>Trends in immunology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>36<\/em>(6), 364-373.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">7. Schneider, S. A., &amp; Bird, T. (2016). Huntington&#8217;s Disease, Huntington&#8217;s Disease Look\u2010Alikes\u200e, and Benign Hereditary Chorea: What&#8217;s New?.&nbsp;<em>Movement disorders clinical practice<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>3<\/em>(4), 342-354.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">8. Roos, R. A. (2010). Huntington&#8217;s disease: a clinical review.&nbsp;<em>Orphanet journal of rare diseases<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>5<\/em>(1), 40.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">9. Carlozzi, N. E., Boileau, N. R., Roberts, A., <em>et al<\/em>. (2021). Understanding speech and swallowing difficulties in individuals with Huntington disease: Validation of the HDQLIFE Speech Difficulties and Swallowing Difficulties Item Banks.&nbsp;<em>Quality of Life Research<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>30<\/em>(1), 251-265.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">10. Paulsen, J. S., Hoth, K. F., Nehl, C., <em>et al<\/em>. (2005). Critical periods of suicide risk in Huntington\u2019s disease.&nbsp;<em>American Journal of Psychiatry<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>162<\/em>(4), 725-731.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">11. Losekoot, M., Van Belzen, M. J., Seneca, S., <em>et al<\/em>. (2013). EMQN\/CMGS best practice guidelines for the molecular genetic testing of Huntington disease.&nbsp;<em>European Journal of Human Genetics<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>21<\/em>(5), 480-486.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">12. Scahill, R. I., Farag, M., Murphy, M. J., <em>et al<\/em>. (2025). Somatic CAG repeat expansion in blood associates with biomarkers of neurodegeneration in Huntington\u2019s disease decades before clinical motor diagnosis.&nbsp;<em>Nature medicine<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>31<\/em>(3), 807-818.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">13. Leite, \u00c2. M. T., Dinis, M. A. P., da Silva Pinto, S. M. L., <em>et al<\/em>. (2017). Long-term negative psychological impact of presymptomatic testing for Huntington Disease.&nbsp;<em>Journal of Health, Medicine and Nursing<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>34<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">14. Kinnunen, K. M., Schwarz, A. J., Turner, E. C., <em>et al<\/em>. (2021). Volumetric MRI-based biomarkers in Huntington&#8217;s disease: an evidentiary review.&nbsp;<em>Frontiers in Neurology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>12<\/em>, 712555.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">15. Feigin, A., Leenders, K. L., Moeller, J. R., <em>et al<\/em>. (2001). Metabolic network abnormalities in early Huntington\u2019s disease: an [18F] FDG PET study.&nbsp;<em>Journal of Nuclear Medicine<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>42<\/em>(11), 1591-1595.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">16. Paulsen, J. S., Zimbelman, J. L., Hinton, S. C., <em>et al<\/em>. (2004). fMRI biomarker of early neuronal dysfunction in presymptomatic Huntington\u2019s disease.&nbsp;<em>American Journal of Neuroradiology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>25<\/em>(10), 1715-1721.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">17. Claassen, D. O., Ayyagari, R., Garcia-Horton, V., <em>et al<\/em>. (2022). Real-world adherence to tetrabenazine or deutetrabenazine among patients with Huntington\u2019s disease: a retrospective database analysis.&nbsp;<em>Neurology and Therapy<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>11<\/em>(1), 435-448.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">18. Videnovic, A. (2013). Treatment of huntington disease.&nbsp;<em>Current treatment options in neurology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>15<\/em>(4), 424-438.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">19. Smalley, J. L., Breda, C., Mason, R. P., <em>et al<\/em>. (2016). Connectivity mapping uncovers small molecules that modulate neurodegeneration in Huntington\u2019s disease models.&nbsp;<em>Journal of Molecular Medicine<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>94<\/em>(2), 235-245.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">20. Ogilvie, A. C., Carnahan, R. M., Chrischilles, E. A., <em>et al<\/em>. (2022). The effects of antidepressants on depressive symptoms in manifest Huntington&#8217;s disease.&nbsp;<em>Journal of psychosomatic research<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>162<\/em>, 111023.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">21. Scheuing, L., Chiu, C. T., Liao, H. M., <em>et al<\/em>. (2014). Preclinical and clinical investigations of mood stabilizers for Huntington&#8217;s disease: what have we learned?.&nbsp;<em>International journal of biological sciences<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>10<\/em>(9), 1024.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">22. Bilney, B., Morris, M. E., &amp; Perry, A. (2003). Effectiveness of physiotherapy, occupational therapy, and speech pathology for people with Huntington&#8217;s disease: a systematic review.&nbsp;<em>Neurorehabilitation and neural repair<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>17<\/em>(1), 12-24.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">23. Gaba, A. (2025). Nutrition and Huntington\u2019s Disease\u2013A Review of Current Practice and Theory.&nbsp;<em>Current Nutrition Reports<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>14<\/em>(1), 18.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">24. Pascu, A. M., Ifteni, P., Teodorescu, A., <em>et al<\/em>. (2015). Delayed identification and diagnosis of Huntington\u2019s disease due to psychiatric symptoms.&nbsp;<em>International journal of mental health systems<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>9<\/em>(1), 33.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">25. Lakra, P., Aditi, K., &amp; Agrawal, N. (2019). Peripheral expression of mutant huntingtin is a critical determinant of weight loss and metabolic disturbances in Huntington\u2019s disease.&nbsp;<em>Scientific reports<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>9<\/em>(1), 10127.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">26. Byrne, L. M., Rodrigues, F. B., Blennow, K., <em>et al<\/em>. (2017). Neurofilament light protein in blood as a potential biomarker of neurodegeneration in Huntington&#8217;s disease: a retrospective cohort analysis.&nbsp;<em>The Lancet Neurology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>16<\/em>(8), 601-609.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">27. Travessa, A. M., Rodrigues, F. B., Mestre, T. A., <em>et al<\/em>. (2017). Fifteen years of clinical trials in Huntington\u2019s disease: A very low clinical drug development success rate.&nbsp;<em>Journal of Huntington&#8217;s disease<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>6<\/em>(2), 157-163.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">28. Yao, J. Y., Liu, T., Hu, X. R<em> et al<\/em>. (2024). An insight into allele-selective approaches to lowering mutant huntingtin protein for Huntington\u2019s disease treatment.&nbsp;<em>Biomedicine &amp; Pharmacotherapy<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>180<\/em>, 117557.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">29. Rook, M. E., &amp; Southwell, A. L. (2022). Antisense oligonucleotide therapy: from design to the Huntington disease clinic.&nbsp;<em>BioDrugs<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>36<\/em>(2), 105.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">30. Sava, V., Fihurka, O., Khvorova, A., <em>et al<\/em>. (2020). Enriched chitosan nanoparticles loaded with siRNA are effective in lowering Huntington&#8217;s disease gene expression following intranasal administration.&nbsp;<em>Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>24<\/em>, 102119.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">31. Alkanli, S. S., Alkanli, N., Ay, A., <em>et al<\/em>. (2023). CRISPR\/Cas9 mediated therapeutic approach in Huntington\u2019s disease.&nbsp;<em>Molecular Neurobiology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>60<\/em>(3), 1486-1498.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">32. Croce, K. R., &amp; Yamamoto, A. (2018). A role for autophagy in Huntington\u2019s disease.&nbsp;<em>Neurobiology of disease<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>122<\/em>, 16.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">33. Liang, X. S., Sun, Z. W., Thomas, A. M., <em>et al<\/em>. (2023). Mesenchymal Stem Cell Therapy for Huntington Disease: A Meta\u2010Analysis.&nbsp;<em>Stem Cells International<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>2023<\/em>(1), 1109967.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">34. Jung, Y., &amp; Damoiseaux, J. S. (2024). The potential of blood neurofilament light as a marker of neurodegeneration for Alzheimer&#8217;s disease.&nbsp;<em>Brain<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>147<\/em>(1), 12-25.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">35. Parekh, N., Bhagat, A., Raj, B., <em>et al<\/em>. (2023). Artificial intelligence in diagnosis and management of Huntington\u2019s disease.&nbsp;<em>Beni-Suef University Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>12<\/em>(1), 87.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">36. Williams, J. K., Skirton, H., Paulsen, J. S., <em>et al<\/em>. (2009). The emotional experiences of family carers in Huntington disease.&nbsp;<em>Journal of advanced nursing<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>65<\/em>(4), 789-798.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">37. Skirton, H., Williams, J. K., Jackson Barnette, J., <em>et al<\/em>. (2010). Huntington disease: families\u2019 experiences of healthcare services.&nbsp;<em>Journal of advanced nursing<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>66<\/em>(3), 500-510.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Huntington\u2019s disease is a rare, inherited brain disorder that damages movement, cognition, and mental health. Caused by a genetic mutation, it worsens over time with no cure, but research into gene-silencing, neuroprotection, and biomarkers brings hope for future treatments alongside supportive, multidisciplinary care.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"featured_media":303,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[14,8,1],"tags":[],"coauthors":[9],"class_list":["post-302","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-genetics","category-healthcare","category-neuroscience"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v27.7 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Huntington\u2019s Disease: A Genetic Tragedy of the Brain<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Huntington\u2019s disease results from an autosomal dominant genetic mutation that progressively destroys nerve cells in the brain.\" 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