{"id":160,"date":"2025-11-05T14:26:00","date_gmt":"2025-11-05T08:56:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/?p=160"},"modified":"2026-01-26T03:53:39","modified_gmt":"2026-01-25T22:23:39","slug":"parkinsons-disease","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/parkinsons-disease\/","title":{"rendered":"Parkinson&#8217;s Disease: Symptoms, Causes, and Emerging Insights"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Picture a disease that gradually, almost unnoticeably, steals your ability to control your own body movements. That&#8217;s a peek into Parkinson&#8217;s disease (PD), a progressive neurodegenerative condition initially extensively described by James Parkinson in 1817<strong><sup>1, 2<\/sup><\/strong>. It affects millions of people globally, and is the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.parkinson.org\/understanding-parkinsons\/statistics\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">second most<\/a> prevalent neurodegenerative disease after Alzheimer&#8217;s<strong><sup>3<\/sup><\/strong>. At its core, PD primarily involves the relentless <a href=\"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/neurodegeneration\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">neurodegeneration<\/a> of neurons in one section of the brain named the substantia nigra, the very same cells that are responsible for generating dopamine, an essential chemical messenger for smooth coordinated movement<strong><sup>4, 5<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">The hallmarks: symptoms of Parkinson&#8217;s<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Parkinson&#8217;s disease often starts subtly, its initial symptoms being easily confused with other diseases, or simply, the aging process. However, as the disease progresses, though, a distinct set of symptoms appears, providing a better picture of its impact on everyday life. These are usually separated into motor and non-motor challenges.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Motor symptoms: the cardinal signs<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Although Parkinson&#8217;s strikes each person differently, the most familiar aspects are the motor symptoms, which occur due to the death of the brain cells that produce dopamine. These usually consist of:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Tremor<\/strong>: Typically, the most obvious indication, this is a rhythmic, involuntary shaking that typically starts in a limb when it is at rest<strong><sup>6<\/sup><\/strong>. It often begins on one side of the body.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Bradykinesia<\/strong>: This refers to a severe slowness, making the simplest activities almost impossibly difficult and exhausting<strong><sup>7<\/sup><\/strong>. Individuals may experience a shuffling gait, trouble initiating movements, or diminished arm swing when walking.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Rigidity<\/strong>: An ongoing stiffness or lack of flexibility in the limbs and trunk that leads to muscle ache and restricts an individual&#8217;s range of motion<strong><sup>8<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Postural instability<\/strong>: Poor balance and coordination that raises the risk of falls and renders easy turns or standing upright difficult<strong><sup>9<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Apart from these primary signs, other motor difficulties may evolve, such as diminished or &#8216;masked&#8217; facial expression, softer speech (hypophonia), trouble swallowing (dysphagia), or handwriting that gets significantly smaller (micrographia)<strong><sup>10-13<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Non-motor symptoms<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Parkinson&#8217;s is not only a movement disorder, however. Most people have a host of non-motor symptoms that may frequently appear years, even decades, prior to developing any movement difficulties. Some of these underlying challenges may sometimes be even more impactful on daily living:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Olfactory dysfunction<\/strong>: A decreased or absent sense of smell is a frequent and often early sign<strong><sup>14<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Sleep disorders<\/strong>: This usually encompasses REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD), in which individuals actually perform the movements of their dreams<strong><sup>15<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Chronic constipation<\/strong>: A long-standing and frequently neglected gastrointestinal problem<strong><sup>16<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Mood disorders<\/strong>: Depression and anxiety are extremely common, usually manifesting as early as motor symptoms<strong><sup>17<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Cognitive changes<\/strong>: These may be anywhere from mild impaired memory or attention to more substantial impairment and, later on, dementia<strong><sup>18<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Other common non-motor symptoms include chronic pain, debilitating fatigue, and bladder problems<strong><sup>19-21<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">The brain&#8217;s battle: pathophysiology of Parkinson&#8217;s<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Fundamentally, Parkinson&#8217;s is a struggle within the brain itself. It&#8217;s a tragic destruction of the critical dopamine-making neurons in the substantia nigra. As they die, the brain&#8217;s levels of dopamine take a plunge, disrupting the delicate balance necessary for smooth movement.<br>A second characteristic feature of Parkinson&#8217;s is the occurrence of Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites<strong><sup>22<\/sup><\/strong>. These are abnormal clumps of protein within brain cells. They consist mainly of a sticky, misfolded protein called alpha-synuclein<strong><sup>23<\/sup><\/strong>. Although classically considered as a brain disease, evidence now indicates that this alpha-synuclein misfolding can actually start much earlier, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/digest\/gut-biofilm-neurodegeneration-parkinsons\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">possibly in the gut<\/a>, majorly influenced by microbial proteins<strong><sup>24<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Unraveling the causes and risk factors<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For the majority of people with Parkinson&#8217;s, the cause is unknown, this is referred to as idiopathic Parkinson&#8217;s<strong><sup>25<\/sup><\/strong>. It is thought to be the result of a multifaceted combination of factors.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Genetics contribute in a minority of instances. Certain gene mutations have been identified, especially in familial cases, with certain vulnerabilities increasing risk even in the absence of a specific genetic cause<strong><sup>26<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Environmental factors are also being studied. Potential connections include exposure to certain pesticides or prior history of head injury, although these connections are less specific<strong><sup>27, 28<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Increasingly, research is indicating the role of emerging biological factors. This includes the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/gut-microbiome\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">gut microbiome<\/a>, where some studies examine the role of factors such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/biofilm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">biofilm<\/a>-associated proteins from gut microbes in promoting the misfolding of proteins such as alpha-synuclein and affecting disease progression through the gut-brain axis<strong><sup>24<\/sup><\/strong>. Because PD involves the interaction of genetic, environmental, and microbial factors, the multi-target, systems-level approach of <a href=\"http:\/\/www.najao.com\/learn\/network-pharmacology\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">network pharmacology<\/a> is increasingly used to model these complex relationships, aiming to find therapeutic points that modulate the entire disease network rather than a single pathway.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">To conclude, age continues to pose the greatest known risk factor, with PD incidence climbing considerably as individuals age<strong><sup>29<\/sup><\/strong>. Although some factors, such as caffeine or exercise, are occasionally proposed to provide a lesser risk, more conclusive research is currently under progress<strong><sup>30, 31<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Diagnosing Parkinson&#8217;s disease<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Diagnosing Parkinson&#8217;s isn&#8217;t as straightforward as a blood test or confirmatory scan. Rather, it&#8217;s principally a clinical diagnosis. This means that physicians exceedingly rely on a complete neurological exam, very closely observing an individual&#8217;s typical motor symptoms and taking a complete medical history. A vital first step is, additionally, to exclude other disorders that can mimic Parkinson&#8217;s, such as essential tremor or side effects of some medications.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">To aid in confirming suspicions and distinguishing the condition, physicians sometimes employ specific imaging. A Dopamine Transporter Scan (DaTscan), for example, can aid in confirming a lack of dopamine-producing brain neurons, which is supportive of a Parkinson&#8217;s diagnosis and aids in distinguishing it from other conditions in which the dopamine system is intact<strong><sup>32<\/sup><\/strong>. An MRI of the brain is also usually done, not to diagnose Parkinson&#8217;s itself, but to exclude other structural brain disorders that may be producing the same symptoms.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Lastly, one of the strongest clues is an individual&#8217;s response to treatment: a notable and favorable improvement in symptoms following levodopa medication is typically strong evidence of a Parkinson&#8217;s diagnosis<strong><sup>33<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Managing Parkinson&#8217;s: treatment and support<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">It is worth noting that although there is still no cure for Parkinson&#8217;s, the treatments available today are extremely successful in controlling symptoms and greatly enhance the quality of life.<br>Pharmacological interventions are the pillar of treatment. Levodopa is usually regarded as the gold standard, because it acts to increase the level of dopamine in the brain<strong><sup>34<\/sup><\/strong>. Other drugs such as dopamine agonists work by simulating the effect of dopamine, and MAO-B inhibitors by preventing the breakdown of dopamine<strong><sup>35, 36<\/sup><\/strong>. Physicians also prescribe other drugs to specifically treat particular motor difficulties (such as dyskinesia) or non-motor symptoms (such as depression, anxiety, or insomnia), individually tailoring these to each patient to maximize the control of symptoms<strong><sup>37<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For certain individuals with advanced PD and severe motor fluctuations, surgical treatments such as deep brain stimulation (DBS) may be considered<strong><sup>38<\/sup><\/strong>. This entails implanting electrodes in certain areas of the brain to control abnormal brain activity.<br>Aside from medications, non-pharmacologic treatments are also absolutely essential. Physical therapy enhances movement, balance, and walking<strong><sup>39<\/sup><\/strong>. Occupational therapy enhances activities of daily living, while speech therapy tackles voice and swallowing difficulties<strong><sup>40, 41<\/sup><\/strong>. Regular exercise, a well-balanced diet, and adjustments in lifestyle are also central to overall well-being.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Looking to the future, incipient therapies are constantly being explored. Researchers are also studying gene therapies, stem cell therapies, and new approaches that focus on preserving neurons and arresting disease progression<strong><sup>42-44<\/sup><\/strong>. Included in these are promising areas for therapies directed at the gut microbiome to modify the disease process<strong><sup>24<\/sup><\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Living with Parkinson&#8217;s: a journey of adaptation<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Living with Parkinson&#8217;s is a process that very frequently calls for adjustment and a strong network of support. Multidisciplinary care by a team of neurologists, therapists, nurses, and social workers can prove worthwhile<strong><sup>45<\/sup><\/strong>. Learning about the illness and joining support groups has the potential to empower the patient and their family to work through difficulties.<br>The research field of Parkinson&#8217;s is extremely active, and every new finding brings with it new hope. Researchers across the globe have been tirelessly working day and night to deepen our knowledge of this multifaceted disease, seeking improved diagnostics, enhanced treatments, and eventually, a cure.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<!--nextpage-->\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">&nbsp;FAQs<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">1. Can Parkinson\u2019s disease affect younger people?<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Yes, while Parkinson\u2019s disease is more common in older adults, a small percentage of people develop symptoms before age 50. This is known as young-onset Parkinson\u2019s disease.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2. Is Parkinson\u2019s disease fatal?<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Parkinson\u2019s disease itself is not considered fatal. However, complications from advanced symptoms, such as falls, swallowing difficulties, or infections can be serious and may contribute to reduced life expectancy in some individuals. Overall, people with Parkinson\u2019s often have a near-normal lifespan.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3. Can Parkinson\u2019s disease be prevented?<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">There is currently no proven way to prevent Parkinson\u2019s disease. Some research suggests that regular exercise and certain lifestyle factors may reduce risk, but no definitive preventive measures have been established.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Reference<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">1. Kalia, L. V., &amp; Lang, A. E. (2015). Parkinson&#8217;s disease.&nbsp;<em>The lancet<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>386<\/em>(9996), 896-912.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">2. Goetz, C. G. (2011). The history of Parkinson&#8217;s disease: early clinical descriptions and neurological therapies.&nbsp;<em>Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in medicine<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>1<\/em>(1), a008862.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">3. De Lau, L. M., &amp; Breteler, M. M. (2006). Epidemiology of Parkinson&#8217;s disease.&nbsp;<em>The Lancet Neurology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>5<\/em>(6), 525-535.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">4. Trist, B. G., Hare, D. J., &amp; Double, K. L. (2019). Oxidative stress in the aging substantia nigra and the etiology of Parkinson&#8217;s disease.&nbsp;<em>Aging cell<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>18<\/em>(6), e13031.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">5. Gepshtein, S., Li, X., Snider, J., <em>et al<\/em>. (2014). Dopamine function and the efficiency of human movement.&nbsp;<em>Journal of cognitive neuroscience<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>26<\/em>(3), 645-657.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">6. Dirkx, M. F., &amp; Bologna, M. (2022). The pathophysiology of Parkinson&#8217;s disease tremor.&nbsp;<em>Journal of the Neurological Sciences<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>435<\/em>, 120196.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">7. Berardelli, A., Rothwell, J. C., Thompson, P. D., <em>et al<\/em>. (2001). Pathophysiology of bradykinesia in Parkinson&#8217;s disease.&nbsp;<em>Brain<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>124<\/em>(11), 2131-2146.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">8. Berardelli, A., Sabra, A. F., &amp; Hallett, M. (1983). Physiological mechanisms of rigidity in Parkinson&#8217;s disease.&nbsp;<em>Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery &amp; Psychiatry<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>46<\/em>(1), 45-53.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">9. Palakurthi, B., &amp; Burugupally, S. P. (2019). Postural instability in Parkinson\u2019s disease: a review.&nbsp;<em>Brain sciences<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>9<\/em>(9), 239.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">10. Ricciardi, L., Bologna, M., Morgante, F., <em>et al<\/em>. (2015). Reduced facial expressiveness in Parkinson&#8217;s disease: A pure motor disorder?.&nbsp;<em>Journal of the neurological sciences<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>358<\/em>(1-2), 125-130.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">11. Manes, J. L., Kurani, A. S., Herschel, E., <em>et al<\/em>. (2023). Premotor cortex is hypoactive during sustained vowel production in individuals with Parkinson\u2019s disease and hypophonia.&nbsp;<em>Frontiers in human neuroscience<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>17<\/em>, 1250114.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">12. Suttrup, I., &amp; Warnecke, T. (2016). Dysphagia in Parkinson\u2019s disease.&nbsp;<em>Dysphagia<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>31<\/em>(1), 24-32.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">13. Zham, P., Raghav, S., Kempster, P., <em>et al<\/em>. (2019). A kinematic study of progressive micrographia in Parkinson&#8217;s disease.&nbsp;<em>Frontiers in neurology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>10<\/em>, 403.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">14. Fullard, M. E., Morley, J. F., &amp; Duda, J. E. (2017). Olfactory dysfunction as an early biomarker in Parkinson\u2019s disease.&nbsp;<em>Neuroscience bulletin<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>33<\/em>, 515-525.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">15. Lin, Y. Q., &amp; Chen, S. D. (2018). RBD: a red flag for cognitive impairment in Parkinson&#8217;s disease?.&nbsp;<em>Sleep Medicine<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>44<\/em>, 38-44.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">16. Stocchi, F., &amp; Torti, M. (2017). Constipation in Parkinson&#8217;s disease.&nbsp;<em>International review of neurobiology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>134<\/em>, 811-826.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">17. Djamshidian, A., &amp; Friedman, J. H. (2014). Anxiety and depression in Parkinson\u2019s disease.&nbsp;<em>Current treatment options in neurology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>16<\/em>, 1-13.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">18. Meireles, J., &amp; Massano, J. (2012). Cognitive impairment and dementia in Parkinson\u2019s disease: clinical features, diagnosis, and management.&nbsp;<em>Frontiers in neurology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>3<\/em>, 88.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">19. Tai, Y. C., &amp; Lin, C. H. (2020). An overview of pain in Parkinson&#8217;s disease.&nbsp;<em>Clinical parkinsonism &amp; related disorders<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>2<\/em>, 1-8.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">20. Friedman, J. H., Beck, J. C., Chou, K. L., <em>et al<\/em>. (2016). Fatigue in Parkinson\u2019s disease: Report from a multidisciplinary symposium.&nbsp;<em>NPJ Parkinson&#8217;s disease<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>2<\/em>(1), 1-6.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">21. Sakakibara, R., Kishi, M., Ogawa, E., <em>et al<\/em>. (2011). Bladder, Bowel, and Sexual Dysfunction in Parkinson\u2032 s Disease.&nbsp;<em>Parkinson\u2019s Disease<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>2011<\/em>(1), 924605.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">22. Gomperts, S. N. (2016). Lewy body dementias: dementia with Lewy bodies and Parkinson disease dementia.&nbsp;<em>Continuum: Lifelong Learning in Neurology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>22<\/em>(2), 435-463.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">23. Atik, A., Stewart, T., &amp; Zhang, J. (2016). Alpha\u2010synuclein as a biomarker for Parkinson&#8217;s disease.&nbsp;<em>Brain pathology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>26<\/em>(3), 410-418.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">24. Valle, J. (2025). Biofilm-associated proteins: from the gut biofilms to neurodegeneration.&nbsp;<em>Gut Microbes<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>17<\/em>(1), 2461721.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">25. Del Tredici, K., &amp; Braak, H. (2013). Idiopathic Parkinson&#8217;s disease: staging an \u03b1-synucleinopathy with a predictable pathoanatomy. In&nbsp;<em>Madame Curie Bioscience Database [Internet]<\/em>. Landes Bioscience.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">26. V\u00e1zquez-V\u00e9lez, G. E., &amp; Zoghbi, H. Y. (2021). Parkinson&#8217;s disease genetics and pathophysiology.&nbsp;<em>Annual review of neuroscience<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>44<\/em>(1), 87-108.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">27. Brown, T. P., Rumsby, P. C., Capleton, A. C., <em>et al<\/em>. (2006). Pesticides and Parkinson\u2019s disease\u2014is there a link?.&nbsp;<em>Environmental health perspectives<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>114<\/em>(2), 156-164.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">28. Taylor, K. M., Saint-Hilaire, M. H., Sudarsky, L., <em>et al<\/em>. (2016). Head injury at early ages is associated with risk of Parkinson&#8217;s disease.&nbsp;<em>Parkinsonism &amp; related disorders<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>23<\/em>, 57-61.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">29. Pagano, G., Ferrara, N., Brooks, D. J., <em>et al<\/em>. (2016). Age at onset and Parkinson disease phenotype.&nbsp;<em>Neurology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>86<\/em>(15), 1400-1407.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">30. Ren, X., &amp; Chen, J. F. (2020). Caffeine and Parkinson\u2019s disease: multiple benefits and emerging mechanisms.&nbsp;<em>Frontiers in Neuroscience<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>14<\/em>, 602697.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">31. Crizzle, A. M., &amp; Newhouse, I. J. (2006). Is physical exercise beneficial for persons with Parkinson&#8217;s disease?.&nbsp;<em>Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>16<\/em>(5), 422-425.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">32. Bega, D., Kuo, P. H., Chalkidou, A., <em>et al<\/em>. (2021). Clinical utility of DaTscan in patients with suspected Parkinsonian syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis.&nbsp;<em>npj Parkinson&#8217;s Disease<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>7<\/em>(1), 43.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">33. Martin, W. W., Miles, M., Zhong, Q., <em>et al<\/em>. (2020). Is levodopa response a valid indicator of Parkinson disease?.&nbsp;<em>Movement disorders: official journal of the Movement Disorder Society<\/em>, 10-1002.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">34. Tambasco, N., Romoli, M., &amp; Calabresi, P. (2018). Levodopa in Parkinson&#8217;s disease: current status and future developments.&nbsp;<em>Current neuropharmacology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>16<\/em>(8), 1239-1252.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">35. C\u00e1novas, A. A., Piudo, R. L., Ruiz-Espiga, P. G., <em>et al<\/em>. (2014). Dopaminergic agonists in Parkinson&#8217;s disease.&nbsp;<em>Neurolog\u00eda (English Edition)<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>29<\/em>(4), 230-241.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">36. Jost, W. H. (2022). A critical appraisal of MAO-B inhibitors in the treatment of Parkinson\u2019s disease.&nbsp;<em>Journal of Neural Transmission<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>129<\/em>(5), 723-736.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">37. Heumann, R., Moratalla, R., Herrero, M. T., <em>et al<\/em>. (2014). Dyskinesia in Parkinson&#8217;s disease: mechanisms and current non\u2010pharmacological interventions.&nbsp;<em>Journal of neurochemistry<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>130<\/em>(4), 472-489.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">38. Hariz, M., &amp; Blomstedt, P. (2022). Deep brain stimulation for Parkinson&#8217;s disease.&nbsp;<em>Journal of internal medicine<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>292<\/em>(5), 764-778.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">39. Kwakkel, D. G., De Goede, C. J. T., &amp; Van Wegen, E. E. H. (2007). Impact of physical therapy for Parkinson&#8217;s disease: a critical review of the literature.&nbsp;<em>Parkinsonism &amp; related disorders<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>13<\/em>, S478-S487.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">40. Sturkenboom, I. H., Graff, M. J., Hendriks, J. C., <em>et al<\/em>. (2014). Efficacy of occupational therapy for patients with Parkinson&#8217;s disease: a randomised controlled trial.&nbsp;<em>The Lancet Neurology<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>13<\/em>(6), 557-566.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">41. Miller, N., Deane, K. H., Jones, D., <em>et al<\/em>. (2011). National survey of speech and language therapy provision for people with Parkinson&#8217;s disease in the United Kingdom: therapists\u2019 practices.&nbsp;<em>International Journal of Language &amp; Communication Disorders<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>46<\/em>(2), 189-201.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">42. Coune, P. G., Schneider, B. L., &amp; Aebischer, P. (2012). Parkinson\u2019s disease: gene therapies.&nbsp;<em>Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in medicine<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>2<\/em>(4), a009431.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">43. Parmar, M., Grealish, S., &amp; Henchcliffe, C. (2020). The future of stem cell therapies for Parkinson disease.&nbsp;<em>Nature Reviews Neuroscience<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>21<\/em>(2), 103-115.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">44. Sola, P., Krishnamurthy, P. T., Kumari, M., <em>et al<\/em>. (2022). Neuroprotective approaches to halt Parkinson&#8217;s disease progression.&nbsp;<em>Neurochemistry international<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>158<\/em>, 105380.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">45. van der Marck, M. A., Bloem, B. R., Borm, <em>et al<\/em>. (2013). Effectiveness of multidisciplinary care for Parkinson&#8217;s disease: a randomized, controlled trial.&nbsp;<em>Movement disorders<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>28<\/em>(5), 605-611.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Parkinson&#8217;s disease is a progressive neurodegenerative condition that affects millions of people globally, and is the second most prevalent neurodegenerative disease after Alzheimer&#8217;s. 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